Jewish beliefs on life after death and Jewish Funerals Essay

Describe the Jewish beliefs about what happens to evil people after death. Death as a general concept is a very difficult concept to come to grips with; it is one of the very few events that occur in modern life where we do not have primary sources to inform us. The torah talks about â€Å"Every Jew having a portion in the world to come†. So we have already established that even the most evil person amongst our ranks will live beside us in the world to come. The problem in the above paragraph which is talked about a lot in Jewish teachings and literature is weather the evil people will live beside us or weather just like a class divide on the trains in England’s past they will be mere peasants in the back carriages. All sources at hand concur that for those possessed with good that have devoted their lives to mitzvoth the after life will only bring pleasure and the most desirable dreams. Back to the original question the problem and arguments occur when talking about evil people. During torah times we were told of a place designed for these sinners referred to as â€Å"Sheol†. When comparing this ideology to the idea of â€Å"Hell† believed by followers of the Christian belief, it was agreed that this is not the case and in fact Judaism does not believe in Hell. – Which is believed to be a mans worst nightmare and often depicted as a fiery underworld. The most well known description of Sheol is a place where the soul is made to stand naked, with no shelter to hide and to have to explain and come to terms with all the sins it has committed. AO2 – Explain how a Jewish funeral service might comfort someone whose close friend has died. The most visually explicit seen which would comfort a friend is the first part of a Jewish funeral, in Hebrew called the leveya translated into the accompaniment. This brings respect to the body and shows the onlookers including the friend how much this body is being respected in its current state and therefore how much it was loved. The (Chevra Kadisha) The most holy people, are the ones responsible for caring for the body after its death and before it is returned to the dust it was made from. It would make anybody feel comforted knowing that their loved was in the hands of these very people, they perform their tasks with the utmost respect. A Eulogy is delivered after the burial; this reminds the friend of the accomplishments that the man has achieved and that his time on the Earth will be remembered. During the second part of the funeral, a hole is dug and the body is put in, the mourner is made to cover the grave himself, this stimulates the mourners body physically and emotionally, and combined the realisation process will begin and he will start understanding that his friend is no longer with us in this world. After he has buried his friend he is in a period of mourning. During this crucial period of a Jewish death, he has certain mitzvoth he must observe, these include not shaving and not preparing your own food. Even non – Jewish therapists have agreed that this method is very good and helps an individual to accept the passing away in a gradual process. Kadish is a prayer said by a mourner and is important because it is said to elevate the soul of the relative and also allows the mourner to feel as if he is still helping even as his relative lies in his coffin. All of these tasks are specifically designed to help the mourner to understand this natural process and to help respect the dead. AO3 – â€Å"It cannot be true that there is life after death because there is no evidence for it. As afore mentioned it is difficult to find proof of the afterlife because we do not have primary sources to agree or disagree with its existence. The torah does specifically mention the afterlife in the form of â€Å"Sheol† and for Jews which follow the torah, this is the most textual proof they need in order to believe this. Just like most of the Jewish religion, Belief plays a huge part, and to believe in the after life is to have beliefs about Jewish ideology. The Mishna and the Gemara, Jewish book of learning do bring textual proof of their being an afterlife. In my opinion the after life does exist, because I am a believer of Jewish principles which tell you that your good deeds will be rewarded and your bad ones deducted from you, I can only believe that my actions in this world, will all be linked to the world to come and I shall receive my just deserves.

Comparison of the flood and the survey

â€Å"Mankind often underestimates the power of nature† Compare ‘The Flood' and ‘A Survey in the light of this statement ‘A survey and ‘The Flood' are two poems which both use linguistic, rhythmic, structural and vocal tools to label the power of pure nature. They differ in many ways yet both, when delved into and studied, appear to agree that mankind does misjudge nature's power. The titles themselves of these two poems indicate an underlying meaning.For example, ‘The Flood' highlights that the focus of this poem is something we might consider as fairly ordinary, but John Clare thinks it is in fact fascinating enough to write a lengthy oem about. ‘A Survey rather than ‘The Survey indicates that what happens in this poem happens again and again; a theme which continues throughout this poem. The voice is 3rd person and impersonal and the tone of it is very lyrical, suggesting to us a ‘campfire song feel, which again displays that this is something that happens repeatedly and continually.In contrast to this, ‘The Flood', instead of a tone of lyrical mythology, has a personal voice and tone of immediacy. The constant imagery provided makes the reader feel as if they were there, instead of Just being told an ‘old ives tale', like the mood of ‘A Survey. Interestingly, both poems contain a mix of past and present tense. This could suggest continuity in both, and the idea that nature, although both are describing a specific event in the past, is always present, and therefore is very powerful as it cannot be overcome. Each poem uses structure and punctuation very cleverly, but in different ways.For example, in â€Å"The Flood†, each line uses iambic pentameter and everything has a rhyme – everything has a word somewhere that rhymes with it. The verses are 14 lines, similar to a sonnet, and the ast verse is even a perfect sonnet that rhymes correctly and finishes with a rhyming couple t. Like a river, it seems chaotic and long, but it technically obeys rhythmic rules. This could suggest to us that everything in nature has a purpose, and nature has its own balance, Just like the theme of ‘A Survey. This could be seen to agree with the statement as the sheer power of nature really comes through here.Contrariwise, Stafford uses rhyme differently. In every verse there is half and imperfect rhyme, but in the verse that talks about the field boot crew – the epresentation of mankind interference'- there is one perfect rhyme; â€Å"crew' and â€Å"two†. This proposes the notion that the â€Å"field boot crew' have tried to force a perfect rhyme upon nature, but it quickly disintegrates into the fact that nature's own natural rhythm, represented by the constant rhythm, works by itself and doesn't need man's interference as it is powerful enough itself.Each stanza in ‘A Survey fascinatingly ends with a full stop, not keeping in the theme of cont inuity the poem has so far displayed. This could be because Stafford wanted to keep within the lyrical form of he poem. Differently, ‘The Flood' incorporates hardly any punctuation save some dashes and a full stop at the end. This again indicates an idea that nature will never end or be stopped, and is more powerful than man. The language is very different in the two poems. One is extravagant and descriptive whereas the other is, although narrative too, less vivid.However, one thing very prominent in ‘A Survey is the contrasts and Juxtaposition used. In the first verse even, Juxtaposition is very obviously used; â€Å"crammed witn hysterical water† tollowed by â€Å"hushed by placid sands†. Another example is the description of the wildcats- or the agents of nature- balancing out the wildness of the land; on one hand the animals are described with â€Å"intricate lines of fur†, â€Å"finesse† and â€Å"tentative paw[s]†, then the sun an d mountains are said to â€Å"rake[s]†¦ buck and scream† and the ridges are described to have â€Å"hackles†.This image of balance follows the theme of the rest of the poem. Contrast is used in a different way in ‘The Flood', perhaps to indicate a dissimilar meaning. The start and end of ‘The Flood' is very chaotic; verbs like â€Å"dashing†¦ ]arred†¦ plunging†¦ oars† are used to imitate the feel of a rushing river. However, the middle verse has a completely different atmosphere due to the language used. â€Å"The feather dances flutters† and â€Å"danced it o'er the waves† bring a different picture of calm.This could represent those small areas of calm sometimes found in bedlam. On the other hand ‘The Flood' can be seen as similar to ‘A Survey because it also highlights the sense of nature's own balance. Personification is used incredibly effectively, especially in the last verse, â€Å"other monsters r ise† is particularly effective as it is strong magery, and describing the flood itself as â€Å"restless†, a human emotion. This puts across the idea that nature has a life of its own like everybody else. Personification is also used to the same effect in â€Å"A Survey'.

Automated Labeling System (Cost Benefit Analysis an IRR) Assignment

Automated Labeling System (Cost Benefit Analysis an IRR) - Assignment Example However, the intuitive controls for the system facilitates in ensuring that the training efforts are reduced significantly. The benefit of the automated labeling system for an ASRS is that the ASRS is fully automated and it attains a higher operation and efficiency in terms of storage and retrieval of information and data. Thus, the process time for the system is improved significantly with the automation of the labeling system. Moreover, the automation creates an opportunity for the integration of the system with all the electrical and mechanical software and hardware, which is provided. The implementation of the system will also ensure that ASRS attains cost effectiveness, flexibility and reliability in the conduct of its services (Michaelyn et al., 2002). Furthermore, process scheduling and data management occurs effectively. Such entails tracking of the results. The automation will also address the issue of the personnel shortage since there is less manpower needed for the operation of the system. Such employees are relocated to other job tasks in the organization, which are demanding a boost on thei r man-power level. Hence, system automation will ensure that the storage and retrieval time is reduced significantly. In addition, monitoring and evaluation of the performance level of this system can be done easily by tracking the results of the system output on daily basis. The internal rate of return for implementing the automated labeling system is very high. Such is based on the potential of the system to improve on the performance and efficiency of ASRS, which increases the productivity and profitability level of the organization. The system also has a higher rate of return on the investment based on its cost effectiveness, improvement of the accessibility and flow, labor reduction, easy maintenance and saving on the floor

Accounting for Management Decisions Research Paper

Accounting for Management Decisions - Research Paper Example In order to be highly competitive in the market, an organisation must be able to forecast future changes in customer needs and market trends. Organisations normally predict possible future market changes by assessing past and current market flows. For this purpose, an organisation deploys a number of business evaluation tools. Activity based costing, value chain analysis, and customer profitability are the three major frameworks that assist an organisation to evaluate its business flow. This paper conducts a detailed research to identify the core concepts, objectives, pros and cons, and applicability of each of these business evaluation methodologies. The paper includes an extensive literature review section and an analysis section. The major findings reflect that: †¢ Cost centre and cost driver are two core concepts of activity based costing †¢ Governance, innovation and upgradation, benchmarking, and product positioning are the key ideas of value chain analysis †¢ Cash flow, customer capital/equity, and customer as a real option constitute the core concepts of customer profitability †¢ The ABC approach greatly assists users to better identify their overheads with regard to activities and resources. †¢ The most advantageous feature value chain analysis is that this methodology assists its users to get a clear view of their core competencies The concept of customer profitability aids an organisation to identify its profitable customer groups and secure them from competitors. II. Introduction Today, organisations are widely using business evaluation tools like ABC, value chain analysis, and customer profitability analysis to evaluate their (organisations’) business feasibility and secure future profitability. Application of these tools assists firms to identify their pitfalls in supply chain activities, their potential strengths and weaknesses, and most profitable customer segments. Although all these three techniques are complex and time consuming, they are the best available tools to accurately evaluate a business concern. The ABC approach is mainly concerned with allocation of cost to various supply chain activities along with the firm’s resources whereas the value chain analysis explores activities that create value for the organisation and those do not create. The former method specifically focuses on profitability of each activity and process while the latter tries to define the organisation’s core competencies over its rivals. In contrast, the concept of customer profitability aids a firm to identify profits generated by its individual customers. All the three approaches are based on some core accounting and management concepts. The following sessions critically analyse these three business evaluation tools in detail. III. Literature review 1. Activity based costing Activity based costing (ABC) can be simply referred to a special costing approach that clearly identifies and defines activities in an organisation and allocates costs of each activity among all products and services based on actual consumption by each activity. According to the Consortium for Advanced Manufacturing-International (CAM-I), activity based costing is a costing model â€Å"that assigns cost activities based on their use of resources, and assigns costs to cost objects, such as products or custome rs, based on their use of activities† (Lewis, 1995, p.114). The ABC is a valuable accounting tool as it provides an organisation with more clear view of the product and process costs. This concept can be effectively employed to improve management decision making process and thereby promote the firm’

Customer recruitment and retention Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Customer recruitment and retention - Essay Example Apart from this, the existing customers should also be paid regular attention, so that they remain loyal to not only iPad but to Apple Inc. 1) The main motive of Apple Inc. is to create products through innovation. Apple focuses on the emotions of its customers. The brand tries to show passion, hopes, aspirations and dreams through their products. Apple has created a unique position for itself in the market for its excellent designs. So it can be said that Apple Inc. was popular even before the launch of iPad. 2) The product offered a good battery life. A good battery life is very important for people from business class as they have can use it while travelling. It is small, light weight and easy to handle. IT also comes with a warranty from Apple Inc. Apart from this; the customers also view iPad as a high quality niche product. So an Apple IPad would be received by the customers as a status symbol (Apple Inc., 2012). 4) IPad has received the first mover advantage because the tablet concept was new at the time, when iPad was launched. Moreover, the product is eco-friendly and made from recyclable materials. It would attract more buyers, especially who are environment conscious. 5) Newer and more advanced version of iPad has been launched to offer better technology to the customers. IPad now has a retina display, with higher resolution. It is the only tablet which will offer 1080 HD resolution. So it can be said that Apple iPad would offer much better display than its previous version ((McWhinnie, 2012). 1) In order to retain customers for iPad, Apple Inc has to first remove certain limitations in the product. The iPad is not having any camera and two applications cannot be run simultaneously. These are few functions that the competitors are offering and Apple has to improvise the iPad accordingly. 2) The people using the iPads should be offered free versions of newly launched applications like

Learning difficulties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Learning difficulties - Essay Example It will also discuss government and private citizens’ efforts in supporting individuals with Dyslexia. What is Dyslexia? Dyslexia is a learning disability related to an individual’s difficulty in obtaining skills in reading, writing and spelling (Special Needs Support Pages, 1999). It affects the development of literacy and language related skills (British Dyslexia Association, 2009). It is one disorder that is neurological in origin (International Dyslexia Association: Lyon et al., 2003). It is a permanent condition, however, it can be managed. For example, children with dyslexia have difficulty in spelling words. One way to overcome this is for them to view pictures of words in their minds because this helps them to retain the words and spell them out better (Morton, 2004). Although dyslexic children manifest difficulties in reading and writing words, they are often bright, creative and talented. Some of their strengths may include mechanical aptitude; artistic abilit y; musical gifts; athletic prowess; advanced social skills; and talents in computer/technology, science, and math (Yoshimoto, 2000). Concern for children with disabilities has already spread in the UK from the 1970’s thanks to some advocates such as Mary Warnock who raised the issues on helping children with special education needs (SEN). The Warnock Report in the year 1978 was developed to appraise the provision for children with psychological as well as physical disabilities. The report had sponsored ranges of special needs for children. It paved the way for the â€Å"Education Act† which was imposed in the year 1983. This act presented different methods to the description of children with SEN. It advocated that these children should be able to obtain the educational support from tutors in the classroom such as the provision of extra time and assistance compared to other students (Sturt, 2002). In 1996 the law on SEN stated that: â€Å"A child has special educationa l needs (SEN) if he or she has a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for him or her† (Education Act, 1996, Section 312). This act mandates local education authorities (LEA) to offer resources in order to recognise and support specific learning problems in children. LEAs were imposed with additional tasks to make an evaluation of children in their disability area (Pumfrey & Reason, 1991). SEN Code of Practice (2001) is the government guidance on meeting the SEN of children with disabilities. Its principles include that children with special needs should have their needs met and that children will normally have their needs met in a mainstream school. With the Special Education Needs Code of Practice (2001), Dyslexia falls under the Communication and Interaction area of need. This area includes learners with speech and language difficulties, impairments and disorders. Children with SEN should have full access to a broad, balanced and relev ant curriculum, including the National Curriculum or, for younger children, the foundation stage curriculum. The children’s views should be taken into account and their parents should be treated as partners of the school (ACE, 2011). Much of what has been described are components of inclusive education. The Education Act of 2010 focuses on supporting inclusion and incorporation of dyslexic children rather than separation and segregation in the school. Inclusive education has evolved towards the idea that all children despite their

Marks & Spencer plc Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Marks & Spencer plc - Research Paper Example The model starts on the premise that an organization is not just Structure, but consists of seven elements: Those seven elements are distinguished in so called hard S's and soft S's. The hard elements (green circles) are feasible and easy to identify. They can be found in strategy statements, corporate plans, organizational charts and other documentations. The four soft S's however, are hardly feasible. They are difficult to describe since capabilities, values and elements of corporate culture are continuously developing and changing. They are highly determined by the people at work in the organization. Therefore it is much more difficult to plan or to influence the characteristics of the soft elements. Although the soft factors are below the surface, they can have a great impact of the hard Structures, Strategies and Systems of the organization. Description(Waterman, R. Jr., Peters, T. and Phillips, J.R. "Structure Is Not Organisation" in Business Horizons, 23,3 June 1980. 14-26.) The Hard S's Strategy Actions a company plans in response to or anticipation of changes in its external environment. Structure Basis for specialization and co-ordination influenced primarily by strategy and by organization size and diversity. Systems Formal and informal procedures that support the strategy and structure. (Systems are more powerful than they are given credit) The Soft S's Style / Culture The culture of the organization, consisting of two components: Organizational Culture: the dominant values and beliefs, and norms, which develop over time and become relatively enduring features of organizational life. Management Style:... The 7-S-Model is better known as McKinsey 7-S. This is because the two persons who developed this model, Tom Peters, and Robert Waterman, have been consultants at McKinsey & Co at that time. They published their 7-S-Model in their article â€Å"Structure Is Not Organization† (1980) and in their books â€Å"The Art of Japanese Management† (1981) and â€Å"In Search of Excellence† (1982).Those seven elements are distinguished in so called hard S’s and soft S’s. The hard elements (green circles) are feasible and easy to identify. They can be found in strategy statements, corporate plans, organizational charts and other documentations.The four soft S’s however, are hardly feasible. They are difficult to describe since capabilities, values, and elements of corporate culture are continuously developing and changing. They are highly determined by the people at work in the organization. Therefore it is much more difficult to plan or to influence the characteristics of the soft elements. Although the soft factors are below the surface, they can have a great impact on the hard Structures, Strategies, and Systems of the organization.Effective organizations achieve a fit between these seven elements. This criterion is the origin of the other name of the model: Diagnostic Model for Organizational Effectiveness. In change processes, many organizations focus their efforts on the hard S’s, Strategy, Structure, and Systems. They care less for the soft S’s, Skills, Staff, Style and Shared Values.

Group Interviews Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Group Interviews - Essay Example Also called as focus groups and panel interviews, group interviewing has, still, its own share of advantages and disadvantages. Several suppositions on its advantages as a research method has made group interviewing an extensively used technique (Robinson, 1993). Comparing this technique with individual or one-on-one interview, group interviewing is presumed to generate a wider variety of response, which in turn, is highly valuable in marketing and social researches. Companies use this technique in job screenings as well, to see leadership and character of the candidates in an open discussion. In this way, they could spot the strong and competent ones who are suitable for their open positions. In terms of time, group interviewing is an efficient technique in social researches to meet deadlines yet still generate sufficient and reasonable data set. With these share of positive attributes, the charisma of group interviewing has come to be equated with â€Å"qualitative research† (Robinson, 1993). In most cases, the effect of group interviewing on interview space and environment is treated as an advantage. As most people feel tension when set for an individual interview, the setting of several interviewees at one session somehow relieves the pressure of the situation. The intimidating feel of the one-on-one interview is also lessened during a group interviews as interviewees get the comfortable feeling along with the each other, rather than alone with a respectable moderator. In this case, the apparent view of the moderator or researcher as an authority, which makes the situation intimidating, is avoided. Interaction among the interviewees is also seen as an advantage in many cases, as it not only creates a comfortable environment but rather an opportunity for a sensible discussion and data set. It is in this lively interaction and rich discussion that the data emerges (Cohen & Manion, 1994). Thus, group

Enhancing CSR in Saudi Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enhancing CSR in Saudi - Essay Example This is in contrast to the Saudi government’s attempts to normalize the practice as a core business of the private sector. Moreover, social responsibility under Islamic teachings is obligatory with the Quran holding that there is due share for the deprived and beggars in wealth (Emtairah et al, 2009). This paper will seek to address what can be done to enhance CSR in Saudi Arabia at the government level, society level, and at the individual level. The belief held by sections of the Saudi society and corporations that CSR is a government responsibility requires concerted efforts by the government in steering debate by the public towards enhancing the acceptance by corporations of their CSR duties (Emtairah et al, 2009). This will also benefit the creation of a healthier society and stimulate growth of enterprise. The government’s role in convincing the private sector and motivating them to accept their obligations under CSR, however, may be inconsistent with free-market practices. Theoretically, the state should desist from forcing the private sector to act in any manner that is not dictated by market forces. Private corporations are, primarily, assumed to offer shareholders reasonable returns for their capital and Saudi business-people have interacted with Western capitalism for a while (Emtairah et al, 2009). Therefore, it will be difficult to alter perceptions, especially as there is increasing emphasis on profit and giving shareholders the highest returns financially. However, unlike the business community in the capitalist West, the government should take advantage of the fact that Saudi Arabia’s objectives of profit maximization do not mean that social problems cannot be solved economically as part of CSR. The government should seek to engage the private sector in debate about CSR from the perspective that there are differences between non-market factors and market factors, treating each aspect

Movie review paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Movie review paper - Essay Example Finch was a lawyer by profession, who accepted the case when asked by the town’s judge to represent a negro man, Tom Robinson, going to be charged with rape of a white girl, Mayella Ewell. Finch loses the case and Robinson gets killed by Sheriff Tate’s deputy while attempting escape. Despite contradictory evidence, the jury comprised of white men found Tom guilty as charged, who was later killed by Sheriff’s deputy while attempting escape. Later, Mayella’s father, Bob Ewell, attacked Scout and Jem but was killed by Radley. Sheriff persuaded Finch that killing Bob was in children’s defense and reported that Ewell fell on his knife. This essay aims to analyze and discuss facts of the cases depicted in the film, the significance and relevance of the roles played by prosecution and plaintiff in the courthouse, the entertainment value of the film and how it relates to the real world, the accuracy in depiction of the legal system and the effects movies ha ve on public opinions (To Kill a Mockingbird). The case of State v. Robinson was central to the story of the film. Robinson was accused of committing crimes, i.e. raping and beating Mayella. According to the testimony of Sheriff Tate, Bob Ewell came to his office and reported that her daughter has been raped by a black man in his house. He went to the crime scene and saw that Mayella was severely beaten. She had abrasions on her head and arm, finger marks on her neck and black right eye, which occurred about half an hour before. She accused Robinson of the crimes and identified him. According to Mayella Ewell, Robinson helped her in chopping up an old chiffarobe for a nickel. She went inside the house to bring the nickel and when turned around, Robinson attacked, raped and repeatedly beat her. She struggled and screamed and then saw her father standing over her asking who did it. According to Bob Ewell, he was coming home from the woods and heard Mayella screaming upon reaching the

Thinking About Rewards Essay Example for Free

Thinking About Rewards Essay From the article entitled Dump the Cash, Load On The Praise, why is salary alone not a motivator?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to the article, while money has its merits and value, it is often not enough.   Studies show that employees have always valued other things more than money.   These other things include: verbal and non-verbal affirmations and praise of performance; the respect of colleagues and peers; feeling that one is making a contribution; having interesting work, and; getting involved in and being informed about whats happening within the company.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The article explains that recognition is vital in boosting an employees esteem, which would in turn improve his/her performance.   Recognition makes the employee do something special because he/she knows that someone will notice and someone will care.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In contrast, relying on money alone will get the work done.   But it is not necessary the employees best work.   It was also found that in this situation, employees often do their least, and do not go above and beyond expectations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition to money, the article suggests a compendium of motivators praise, recognition, promotion and growth opportunities, and challenging work. After reading Nelsons top ten ways to motivate todays employees list, identify five suggestions from that list that would be effective strategies to use to motivate you as an employee. Explain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Be willing to take the time to meet with and listen to employeesas much as they need or want.   This is most important to me at my current job, because above all, I need to learn about the job.   Having regular discussions with my boss would not only help me in the learning process, it also gives me a chance to clarify some things, as well as, provide an indicator of my progress.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Provide specific feedback about performance of the person, the department and the organization. Basically, for reasons the same as above.   Only this would also provide me with a glimpse of what values, attitudes and performance indicators are getting more weight.   It also helps me learn more about the company, the people and the dynamics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Strive to create a work environment that is open, trusting and fun. Encourage new ideas and initiative.  Ã‚   I like to work in an environment where I dont feel the need to conform to everyone elses expectations.   And since I am new, I expect to contribute some systems that I have learned in the past.   I want to be able to try out these systems without any fear of making mistakes, the same mistakes that we all can learn from.   I would like to be able to express ideas and not be shot down without getting heard.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Involve employees in decisions, especially when those decisions affect them. I think its only fair to involve me in decisions about things that would affect me, both on a personal and professional level.   That way, I can share my situation and opinions.   It would also make me feel like my inputs are important, while giving me an opportunity to better understand the issue from the managements perspective.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Give people a chance to grow and learn new skills. Show them how you can help them meet their goals within the context of meeting the organizations goals. Create a partnership with each employee. Probably, the first thing that would make me leave is a sense of stagnation the feeling that I am no longer learning or the things Im doing is getting routine. From the Getting Happy with the Rewards King article, do you agree with Bob Nelson’s position that â€Å"while money is important to employees, thoughtful recognition motivates them to perform at higher levels?† Contrast Nelson’s perspective with that of Alfie Kohn in the For Best Results, Forget the Bonus article where he argues that rewards don’t work.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I agree with Nelson when he says that money is not everything, and that recognition motivates people to work at higher levels.   I have seen this happen many times at work, with myself, or with my colleagues.   Ive seen it happen in school.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is also intuitive, and common sense.   You cant get anything from beating a dead donkey.   In the same manner that you cant get the best work out of a demoralized employee.   Recognition builds the employees self-esteem, and shows him/her what is important in the organization.   It helps him/her create positive relationships with colleagues and superiors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nelsons empirical ideas is backed by years of experience in human resources.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kohn, on the other hand, drives home the point that the effect of rewards is, at most, temporary.   Kohn argues that rewards are more like punishment.   However, unlike Nelson, Kohns arguments are not rooted in research, or empirical observations.   In fact, Kohns ideas run contrary to what Ive seen and learned thus far.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sure, Kohn cites studies but fails to name them.   I feel that the conclusions derived from these studies (if they do, in fact, exist) are either limited, or erroneous.   Organizational behavior is a complex phenomenon that its difficult to weed out extraneous variables, even in most experimental settings.   Kohn relates the findings found at an unnamed Midwestern company, where an incentive system was taken out. At first, Kohn says, the production went down as expected, but in the long term, production rose to a level at par or higher than before.   Since the study was not actually named, we could only judge it from what Kohn wrote.   Firstly, it seems simplistic that an experience or result at one company should apply to the general population.   Secondly, Kohn failed to eliminate other causes, like the workers learning more about their processes or additional machinery acquired, and other things.   For me, Kohns cited studies seem largely unscientific and and their applications are profoundly limited.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, Kohn succeeds in explaining why recognition should work.   Ironically, by comparing recognition and punishment, Kohn showed us that recognition as a catalyst for behavioral change has the same impact as punishment.   We all report to work on time to avoid pay deduction, or a warning.   We dont smoke in areas were not supposed to, because of the company policy, or the indignant stares we get.   Like it or not, punishment works.   By equating recognition with punishment, Kohn undermines his statement that recognition do not and will not work.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   And since Kohn cites studies from social psychology, it would be interesting to know what Kohn thinks of conditioning theorists like Skinner who expoused the importance of positive reinforcement on behavior changes and learning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the end, all Kohn is arguing is the value of the reward involved, not the recognition system per se.   For Kohn, a reward of higher value would make recognitions impact more felt. Intuit is cited as among the Fortunes Best Companies (#33 on the 2007 list, up from #78 in 2004) to work for because they have a corporate culture that is always focused on employee recognition. Go to the Intuit website and review their rewards program for employees http://web.intuit.com/about_intuit/careers/rewards/ .   In light of our readings on rewards, what is your assessment of the Intuit rewards culture?      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If I were to serve as a judge for Fortunes Best Companies to work for, Intuit would jump from #33 to at least the top 20.   For one, Intuit has an enviable benefits package, including medical, vision and dental plans, a flexible spending account benefit, stock plans, assistance and referral programs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While the Web site is largely silent on non-cash recognition, it can be inferred that the company cares for its employees.   Its disability insurance that pays up to 70% of the employees basic salary promotes a sense of security for its labor force, in the event that something bad happens to them.   The companys openness and assistance in their employees savings, as well as its assistance programs, also speaks about the companys concern. The company is also committed to help employees learn formally with a tuition assistance programs.   Furthermore, the company even pays for their employees gym memberships and fitness classes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   More than that, the company says on its Web site that employees are recognized through cash and non-cash incentives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intuit is right up there on the list of best companies to work for because of all these.   They are right on target and on track with recognizing their employees, making them a company to be emulated by others. How does your organization stack up with respect to creative and fun work environments with respect to reward systems?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have just been recently hired as a contact representative by the Social Security Administration.   Even though I am still in training, I find that my job is   fulfilling based on what my colleagues tell me and what I see from them.   First off, I have a supervisor who provides me regular feedback on my performance and how I am progressing, and even the things that I need to address or learn more.   I work at an office that specifically values respect among its workers and to its callers.   There is actually a written policy that says each employee must treat other employeesand customerswith respect, regardless of their race, gender, age, religion, etc.   My colleagues are actually very friendly and helpful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I also find that the very nature of my worktalking to a variety of people about their social security, their checks, and their benefitsis stimulating for me.   There is always a new case with new circumstances every single day.   I am grateful that my colleagues also find time to share their stories and their work.   At various points of the day, we share tips on how to handle irate callers, or how to best process a complaint, or what to do in a particular instance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even if the SSA is a very structured organization, I find that we have leeways in handling calls.   We actually can use our own methods in answering calls and getting the information to the callers.   Its not that stiff.   The quality of your work is based on how clearly youve communicated the information to the caller, and how you handled the caller.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Whats more, I work with people that puts a high value on camaraderie.   Just yesterday, a colleague celebrated her birthday, and everybody chipped in to buy her a big chocolate cake, while our department boss gave her a bouquet of flowers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I think Im going to like it there. In your experience, is employee recognition a scarce commodity in organizations? Why is that so?      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   No. I think I have been very lucky to be involved in organizations in the past that respected and valued diversity and initiative.   In a way, I have been praised for my work.   I have also been objectively reprimanded for lapses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I am currently in an organization that strives to build relationships among its people.   The same organization that is very clear with what it aims to achieve, and rewards the people who makes it happen.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Its not really just about commissions, or big fat incentives.   Recognition comes in various forms.   My personal criteria is that if it makes you feel warm all over, if it boosts your self-esteem, if it makes you want to repeat your behavior, then thats recognition. What is the most important lesson you took away from these readings and discussion?      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   My most important lesson is that while recognition has profound positive effects on the employeesand ultimately, the organizationit doesnt have to be expensive.   Recognition could be as simple as a pat on the back, a good word, or singling out the employee/s who did good and thanking them.   Recognition does not have to be elaborate, it just have to be apparent.

Five Types Of Qualitative Research Psychology Essay

Five Types Of Qualitative Research Psychology Essay This essay will start by defining qualitative research, it will then continue to discuss Creswells five types of qualitative research. Each type of study will be discussed and an argument will be made supporting these qualitative research technique in an organisational context (over quantitative methods). The essay puts much emphasis on justifying qualitative research in organisations to positivists. It will conclude with a short summary of the provided arguments that justify qualitative research in organisations. Qualitative research can be defined as, any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification (Strauss and Corbin p.17). One might argue that in todays business world there is no room for qualitative research, but only for solid proven statistics. However, organisations are not just numbers and numeric devices it is important to realise that the most important asset of organisations are its people. The aim of qualitative research is to find out more about the human element within organisations, and looks for meaning behind the numbers. The definition of qualitative research by Strauss and Corbin (2007) is very broad. Creswell (2009) defines qualitative research as a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. This definition narrows down qualitative research. Creswell also states that qualitative researchers can choose from a wide range of researching methods such as; open-ended questions, interview data, observation data, document data, audio-visual data, text and image analysis, emerging methods, and themes patterns and interpretations. He (2009) goes even further and puts forward five types of qualitative research; narrative research, phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory studies and case studies. Narrative Approach The narrative approach or the story telling approach is an account or a history of something. Storytelling is an effective tool in making sense of change; identifying who we are, and where we come from. According to Rouse and Boff (2005), human culture itself, rests to a large extent on our ability to capture real and imagined events as sequences of cause and effect (i.e. stories) and share these sequences (pg. 300). The need to share these experiences is crucial in the process of collective sense-making, which we can find all around us. Newspapers for example, were referred to by Philip Graham, are the first draft of history. We tell each other stories to make sense of our social environment, and these stories keep developing. In the cultural web of organisations proposed by Johnson, Scholes and Whittington (2006), they argue that stories are a key proponent to the organisations culture. They are devices for telling people what is important in the organisation (pg. 203). A narrative approach to understanding organisational theory is crucial as Zukier (1986) argues that most people think in a narrative fashion as opposed to paradigmatically or argumentatively (in Weick, 1995). Through a subjective, collective storytelling effort, an objective reality is created. Positivists however, seek the rational pursuit of factual truth (Thorpe and Holt, 2008: pg. 155), and criticise the narrative approach as being unreliable due to its subjective nature. However as Czarniawska (1998) explains, the perceived coherence of the sequence of events rather than the truth or falsity of story elements determines the plot and thus the power of the narrative as a story (pg. 5). When examining organisational culture, the validity of the stories told is not what is of essence, seeing as whether true or false, the story plays a hand in creating the culture. In the Laskarina case study by Brown, Humphreys and Gurney (2005) for example, employees were all familiar with the story of how t he founding couple of the company fell in love with Laskarina on their honeymoon. Whether this story is true or not, it is clearly a key aspect of the companys culture and as such is relevant to understanding the organisations identity. A positivist would fail to recognise this, as the subjectivity of respondents is replaced by the objectivity of the researcher whose voice is that of a disinterested scientist [who] is simply an informer of decision makers (Lincoln and Guba, 1994: pg. 112). We find in the Humphreys and Brown (2008) Credit Line case-study, storytelling efforts made by managers and others regarding their corporate social responsibility (CSR). Boonstra and Caluwe (2007) explain that, [As an organisation] you process what you find difficult, but you comment on the things that people are proud of (pg. 49). We find that at Credit Line, CSR is a top-down approach, where managers heavily promote social responsibility through storytelling. Again, regardless of the storys vali dity, the narrative approach provides insight into the corporate culture. Not only are crucial points overlooked with a positivistic framework, but a disinterested scientist is unlikely to engage the reader very well. During my internship, whilst trying to better understand cultural differences, I interviewed some of my colleagues to learn how they felt about the need to be secluded from the rest of the bank. I was surprised to receive a variety of responses; some felt it was unnecessary, while others were quite adamant. This plays to an advantage of narrative analysis; representing the organisation as encompassing a variety of viewpoints that coexist as polyphony. Phenomenology Phenomenology is a philosophical school of thought which aims to recognise the association between human consciousness and the social environment. Developed in the early twentieth century by Edmund Husserl, its existence is a result of the shortcomings of positivist mentality (Orleans, 2001). Husserl felt the predominant school of thought at the time precluded an adequate apprehension of the world (Husserl, 1931 in Orleans, 2001: pg. 1). The main issue is that positivists do not recognise the importance of the process of thought and the direct impact this has on ones environment, which is the essence of phenomenology. In an organisation (as in any other social setting), in order to understand its way of life, we must first understand the mindset of its members. Understanding the individual and collective sphere of human consciousness allows a level of intimate comprehension, far greater than would be possible with positivist methodology. Unlike positivism and other scientific methods , phenomenology does not produce propositions that can be empirically tested. Human consciousness and thought process is too complex for quantitative analysis. Furthermore the transferability of findings from one social environment to another is not possible. Organisational culture is a subject that can benefit from this type of qualitative analysis. The concept of culture is in itself a human construct. It is a shared experience between members of a particular society. According to Connor (2000), when studying organisational culture it is important the researcher enters the field without any predetermined problems or hypotheses that require solving or testing. Such a positivist approach can lead to an inadequate apprehension of the world (or at least of the organisation). An interesting aspect of social behaviour is that of common sense. This constitutes what the norm is in the organisation. Orleans (2001) claims, common sense serves as an ever present resource to assure actors tha t the reality that is projected from human subjectivity is an objective reality (pg. 4). Hence we find that through sense making an objective reality is created. This is because the organisational social environment and its culture are human constructs. A positivist approach in defining common sense would be inappropriate. A positivist researcher would take the process of thought for granted, as subjectivity in not encouraged. This would lead to a tainted view of the life-world. Upon starting my internship in Islamic banking during the summer, and entering the field, the most challenging aspect was the culture change (perhaps even culture shock) involved with being a western, non-Muslim working in Islamic banking. This became evident on my very first day, when I tried to introduce myself to a female colleague with a handshake. What I did not realise, was that her culture prohibited such physical contact with a stranger. Interestingly, their organisational culture was that of their religion, Islam. It governed their subjective thought processes and determined common sense, providing an objective social reality. The purpose of my project was to determine whether due to their cultural difference, if Islamic banking and conventional banking were compatible (i.e. ability to exist under a single corporate umbrella). If I were to have approached this study as a phenomenological researcher, I would be more interested in the thought processes of the employees. As suc h, I may seek to understand what the notion of cultural difference means to those working in Islamic Banking but for a Western organisation. The key theme of phenomenology is understanding how consciousness of the self affects reality. This is important not only for the members of the society (the subjects), but also for the researcher. Introspection is necessary to determine any effects the researchers presence may have on the social environment. Reflexivity is the chief aspect of Watsons (1995) study. Watson provides us his subjective sense-making process involved with how to write his paper, in the form of a dialogue with himself. In my case, as an outsider in Islamic Banking, it is possible my interpretation of the data can be wrong, as I am attempting to analyse the situation through a familiar (western) lens. As Levinas states, western ontologyis [the] reduction of the other to the categories of the same (Levinas in Kearney, 1995: pg. 183). Grounded Theory Grounded theory, in comparison to scientific methodology, is a reverse style research system developed by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. The basic process involves; coding the key points in a data set, using theoretic sensitivity to group codes into categories by looking for links, and formulating theories from these categories. The purpose being, that if completed correctly, the formulated theory is grounded in the data, and should perfectly fit the dataset. Glaser and Strauss realised at the time, sociological practice relied exclusively on quantitative analysis. Goulding (1999) refers to the research of the time as extreme empiricism or grand theory (Mills, 1959). According to Glaser and Strauss, the result was that theory had restricted empirical relevance, and grounded theory was their solution to shut this embarrassing gap between theory and empirical research (Glaser and Strauss, 1967: pg. vii). Their main objective was to derive theory from the data that could provide pred ictions, explanations, interpretations and applications (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, pg. 1). A positivistic quantitative method of data derived theory is the ANOVA process. However ANOVA is a simplistic additive model that fails to explain the complexities of the manner in which variables interact. Furthermore, unlike grounded theory, the ANOVA process does not necessarily take into account the entire dataset. Outlying data variables are deleted and not accounted for in the theory. Though grounded theory (if performed correctly) can better represent the dataset than quantitative methods, according to Strauss the theoretic development process determines the quality of the theory. Glaser and Strauss (1967), proposed that theory is never a finished product. Instead it is a work in progress that requires continuous updating. Theoretic development as a sustaining concept is relevant to organisational theory (e.g. culture). This is because an organisation is a work in progress as well. Mark et conditions change, competitors come and go, and organisational culture needs to adapt. Unlike positivistic methodology, a grounded theorist enters the field without preconceived hypotheses that need to be tested, resulting in a better understanding of the organisations true naturalistic situation (Douglas, 2003). Positivists such as Haig (1995) argue that constructing hypotheses prior to entering the field is necessary because a researcher must identify a specific question that needs to be researched. A grounded theorist can enter the field having a general reason for undertaking the specific research. This does require the formulation of hypotheses and hypothetical problems. In Jefferys (1979) study Normal Rubbish, he identified the casualty department at the NHS had problems, and that it was an undesirable place to work, before entering the field. Formulating hypotheses as to why this was the case at this stage would not have been fruitful. Through conducting qualitative resear ch (interviews, participant observation, etc) Jefferey was able to identify links through the language used by doctors and staff (good patients, rubbish, etc). By adopting such an emergent theory development process, Jefferey discovered the culture that was associated with the casualty staff at the NHS. Douglas (2003) found that when grounded theory is applied in the organisational context, theory emerged from empathising the ways in which respondents construct their reality, their world (pg. 53). That is, grounded theory enables understanding of how the organisation views itself in the context of its environment. Through appreciation of the interactions and processes of the organisation in its natural setting, its culture can be understood. Grounded theory is a complex process, which if fulfilled, provides many benefits. Due to its advantages, many researchers claim to have fully undertaken the process, but few actually do (i.e. cook the carrot for the full nine hours). While conducting my study on the culture of Islamic banking I did not use a grounded theory approach due to my lack of experience and understanding. Van Maanen (1979) emphasises the importance of recognising the issues in their natural context. This is especially important in the case of understanding organisational culture. By formulating a theory, without forming prior hypotheses and being purely grounded in the data, we can appreciate the organisations true nature. Ethnography Ethnography is a descriptive style of study on human society. In terms of studying organisational culture (or any culture), ethnography is arguably the most relevant methodology that can be utilised. Ethno-graph literally translates to, culture- writing. Ethnography has its roots in colonialism, in the quest to learn about the other and their culture. It is of little surprise that ethnography was developed outside the United States (Kenya, Samoa, Bali, Brazil) (Schwartzman, 1993: pg. 1). Ethnography is a reality-based research system which is placed in the context of the subjects life. This is more effective than quantitative methodology as the research is grounded in the respondents natural setting, and does not require the participant to place themselves in hypothetical situations (such as when answering questionnaires). This is crucial as there can be a difference between what participants do as opposed to what they say. Mariampolski (2005) points out that participant observation is an advantage since a respondents self disclosure can be idealised, obscured and poorly recalled (pg. 10). As such, ethnography provides an insight into the organisations social setting through understanding the respondents interactions with it. Positivistic methodology however, lacks engagement of the natural setting. For example, by defining variables such as gender, expectations, and pay-level of participants, positivists can determine the level of correlation. However this is not helpful in explaining the social world as experienced by its social actors. We need to ask, what is the meaning behind the numbers? Mariampolski (2005) points out that ethnography is the closest a researcher can get to the respondent. Given this, she questions why it has taken over one hundred years for qualitative research to become popular in organisations (such as marketing firms conducting consumer brand research). Similar to the findings of Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Edmund Husserl (1931), pos itivist mentality used to be the norm. In such a world anything can be objectively perceived and counted. This makes life easier for managers, who need to worry about consumer targets and budget reports. However Mariampolski (2005) points out that the positivistic methodology is a fantasy. It fails to understand the complexities of human behaviour and fails as a predictive tool (Mariampolski, 2005: pg. 13). Spradley (1979) defines culture as, the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behaviour (pg. 5). In essence, it is a group of peoples way of life, and cannot be measured through quantitative techniques. As mentioned earlier ethnography aims to understand the other in our terms (i.e. by us, for us). However auto-ethnography is an autobiographical style of writing, where the researcher investigates a familiar culture for non-members of that society. The benefit of this is that the reader is provided with a genuine account of a social environ ment by a member of that culture. Hence the concern of misinterpreting data by viewing it through a familiar lens is overcome. Positivist methodology does not benefit from such valuable insight, as the researchers role in minimised in the outcome of the study. The study I compiled while doing my internship in Islamic banking was definitely of an ethnographic nature. I was the first non-Muslim to work in that division at the bank, and that made me feel as though I were back in the days of colonialism, setting off to learn about the other and their culture, so that I could bring my findings back to the West and report them (to my university). In order to understand a society, entering the field is necessary. For example, prior to arriving in Dubai, one of the aspects of Islamic banking I did not understand was their need for segregation from all other operations of their own organisation. However upon entering the field, I learned that according to Shariah law (the Islamic law), the Islamic banking division of an organisation cannot have any affiliation with any conventional banking operations. Other than having to be physically separated, Islamic banking earnings and funds cannot be reported along with conventional banking earnings. In fact within the organisation, the Islamic banking division operated like an independent sub-organisation, which included its own name. As Mariampolski (2005) explains, ethnography is holistic in that one needs to piece together the respondents world, through utilising inner and outer-world elements that can only be identified upon entering the field. Conclusion The colonial days of travelling to unchartered territories to research an unknown tribe of people in their local setting may be over. Today, organisations provide the perfect social environment. Corporate culture varies not only across national boundaries but from organisation to organisation. Quantitative methods, though useful in understanding certain aspects of organisational theory, is unable to explicate the human dimension of organisations. Through the use of the mentioned qualitative research techniques, valuable insight can be gained into many aspects of an organisation, not just culture. Which qualitative technique to choose, depends on the nature of the study at hand. It has been shown that there is a definite benefit (if not requirement) of using qualitative analysis in an organisational context. Eigentlich Intro This is because positivists are usually sceptical of qualitative methods and undergo technical and quantitative training. The disadvantages of positivistic methodology in organisational research will be emphasised. The purpose of this is not to prove one is better than the other. But to justify the need for qualitative research, the shortcomings of positivistic, quantitative methodology must be emphasised. As a student of Corporate Strategy and Governance, I understand the significance of corporate culture. It is an organisations identity and has been described by some as its soul. For the purpose of this study understanding an organisations culture will be the focus of the justification of qualitative research in organisational studies. This is because quantitative research is unable to explain organisational culture. My interest in corporate culture also arises because I have undertaken field research in the area before. In the summer of 2007, I applied for an internship in Islamic banking with a large English multinational bank in Dubai. Other than gaining practical exposure to the field, my primary motivation was to conduct research for a strategy based assignment I had been given for university. As a westerner I was looking forward to understanding the cultural differences between Islamic banking and conventional banking. Wherever appropriate, I try to relate my experiences. Word Count: 3,200

Reflection on Critical Care of COPD Patient

Reflection on Critical Care of COPD Patient Foundations of critical care. Introduction The aim of this essay is to present a situation in describing my experiences caring for am identified female patient, and reflecting upon the issues which arose during one shift in a Critical Care unit. The reflective analysis will be carried out using Johns model of reflection (1995) which incorporates Carpers fundamental ways of knowing. This includes aesthetic, personal, ethical and empirical knowing and re flexibility. The purpose of the reflection is to understand better the ways of knowing applied to the situation, and to build upon this knowledge to improve future practice. Case Description. The chosen patient is a 59 year old female with a history of COPD and asthma. For the purposes of this essay, she will be called Jane. Jane had a severe infective exacerbation of COPD, which resulted in PEA Cardiac arrest in the admission medical unit secondary to type 2 respiratory failure, although it was a brief period of output loss only. Jane was intubated and transferred to the critical care unit, and since then she has had difficulty being ventilated due to bronchospasm/air trapping. At the time that I took over care for this patient, she had been on the critical care unit, on ventilatory support, for 12 days. Reflection (based on John’s Model and Carper’s Fundamental Ways of Knowing). AESTHETIC KNOWING: As I came on shift, the ventilation mode was on BIPAP, ASB 15, PEEP 10, I:E 1:3, FIO2 .65 via tracheostomy tube. Upon assessment at the beginning of the shift her BP 110/40, map was 60mmhg despite of noradreanline, and core temperature was 38.6 with improving markers of inflammation. The CVP had fallen to 8, but there was good urine output, 45-70 mls per hour over the previous four hours, with hourly urine measurements continuing. There was an intercostal drain in situ for a pneumothorax which developed post subclavian line insertion. Jane was sedated on midazolam and morphine sulphate infusion. She wass also paralysed with Vecuronium infusion to optimise ventilation, in the light of the previous difficulties. Jane was also on noradrenaline and actrapid insulin infusion, both of which aimed to maintain homeostasis. She was fed via nasogastric tube with Osmolite 60mls/hr with water 50 mls/hr, the latter because her sodium level had been rising when the serial U+Es were reviewed. I als o noted also her heart rate rising up to 148b/m, and was aware that she had had an episode of SVT on the previous day, with a loading dose of amiodarone having been given on that day. Having noted these findings, I reported to the Doctor that the patient may be dehydrated and need significantly increased fluids, perhaps an IV fluid challenge, as it had been noted that her CVP was declining, that she was hypotensive, and that urine output had started to tail off . This finding was supported by the fact that the patient was tachycardic. In response, the doctor prescribed 500mls of Gelofusin and an amiodarone infusion for 24 hours to be restarted. The care of this patient involved frequent, close observations, and these were what initially alerted me to the changes in the patient’s condition. The reduced central venous pressure was the first indicator, which was accompanied by consistently low blood pressure readings. This was despite the patient being medicated with noradrenaline, which should have brought about an increase in blood pressure and CVP. These, accompanied by the tachycardia, made me wonder whether the patient might be dehydrated, quite severely. The plan for the shift then became to give the patient a fluid challenge, in the form of the Gelofusin infusion, and to optimise her electrolyte levels, monitor and correct her pc02, and improve her positioning to improve V/Q mismatch. It was my responsiblity to report to the doctor or nurse co-ordinator if there were any untoward changes with the patients observations. There were a lot of issues surrounding the care of such a patient, and I believed that I was making decisions based upon previous experiences, a degree of previously developed innate knowledge, and other knowledge, including empirical knowledge. However, I also felt that it was hard to combine all the observations, results, care plans, orders and the like into an overall consciousness of the patient’s current condition. This leads into the next section of the reflection, that of personal knowing. PERSONAL KNOWING: The personal knowing relates to some innate knowledge, and this is based on experience. I have in past practice previously looked after patients who were haemodymically unstable and needed prompt intervention. In fact, I felt a degree of confidence with this kind of patient. However, this was different to having to look after a long term complicated case, a woman who had demonstrated such difficulty to ventilate (due to broncho- spasm/air trapping), was challenging. The fact that the patient was paralysed, with a vecuronium infusion was something entirely new to me, which caused concern and a little distress. However, from my previous experience I felt very strongly that thei patient might require fluid challenge due to the observations already discussed. I was concerned that day if it was left untreated for much longer, Jane patient might develop metabolic acidosis, and potentially acute renal failure due to hypoperfusion and hypovolaemic shock due to the decrease in circulating volume. I identified this as an opportunity to be proactive, and although everyone around me seemed more concerned with oxygen pressures and ventilation, I felt that it was important to consider other aspects of the patient’s condition as well. ETHICAL KNOWING Ethical knowing in this case was very acute, because of the level of dependence of the patient, who was dependent on nursing and medical staff for every one of her activities of daily living. Addressing one of these needs that I sensed other staff may have overlooked meant that I was able to be proactive. Discussing with the doctor that the patient might need a fluid challenge made me feel that I had acted as an advocate for my patient, but also that I had made good use of the knowledge I already had, even if I did not feel I had enough specialist knowledge to address some of the patient needs. The patient’s social and emotional needs were also an important part of ethical knowing. Jane lives alone, and her sister is her next of kin. Her sister kept calling the unit for any changes, although she was already updated by the medical team every day, and talking with the sister helped to ensure that I was aware of Jane as a person, and also able to make sure that those who needed t o know were involved as much as possible in her care. EMPIRICAL KNOWING. I was aware that institution of high level of PEEP in the ventilator decreases blood return to the heart and cardiac output as the PEEP ventilation generates positive intrathoracic pressure. However, the symptoms persistently suggested hypovolaemia (Kelly, 2005). I was also aware of other issues, such as the need to increase oxygen pressure, but the ABG tests carried out every six hours demonstrated good oxygen pressures. However, I had to learn about the implications of ventilation on the cardiovascular system. â€Å"Ventilation can profoundly alter cardiovascular function via complex, conflicting, and often opposite processes. These processes reflect the interaction between myocardial reserve, ventricular pump function, circulating blood volume, blood flow distribution, autonomic tone, endocrinologic responses, lung volume, intrathoracic pressure (ITP), and the surrounding pressures for the remainder of the circulation†. (Pinsky, 2005 p 592s). One of the most significant issues surrounding empirical knowing in this case was the need to understand all the potential complications of having a patient in such a condition, paralysed and receiving the high levels of PEEP in order to maintain ventilation. The literature shows that there are a number of issues surrounding mechanical ventilation. For example, Putenson et al 2006) state that mechanical ventilation generates an increase in airway pressure and, therefore, an increase in intrathoracic pressure, which may decrease systemic and intra-abdominal organ perfusion, which may have significant effects on homeostasis an organ function. Critically ill patients can therefore develop a systemic inflammatory response that culminates in multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome and death, which suggests that the symptoms that Jane was displaying, and the findings from the electrolyte levels, could have been related to a more serious bodily response to mechanical ventilation. I did not know about this possible response to mechanical ventilation, until I carried out a literature search, and so would not have been aware that the findings were possibly linked to this kind of serious response. Kollef (2004) suggests that for all patients who are intubated/ventilated, there are a number evidence-based interventions which focus on the prevention of aerodigestive tract colonization which can result in one of the serious complications of ventilation, that of ventilator-associated pneumonia. These include avoidance of unnecessary antibiotics, stress ulcer prophylaxis, chlorhexidine oral rinse, selective digestive decontamination, short-course parenteral prophylactic antibiotics in high-risk patients, and the prevention of aspiration of contaminated secretions, with preferred oral intubation, appropriate intensive care unit staffing, avoidance of tracheal intubation with the use of mask ventilation, application of weaning protocols and optimal use of sedation to shorten the duration of mechanical ventilation, semirecumbent positioning, minimization of gastric distension, subglottic suctioning, avoidance of ventilator circuit changes/manipulation, and routine drainage of ventilat or circuit condensate (Kollef, 2004). Obviously a key element of empirical knowing for me in this situation is about the haemodynamic monitoring, which has been so important in assessing this patient (Pinsky, 2003). The literature says that ongoing and dynamic haemodynamic monitoring is important in judging the response to the treatment, including the fluid challenge (Hadian and Pinsky, 2007). Michard (2005) states that â€Å"mechanical ventilation induces cyclic changes in vena cava blood flow, pulmonary artery blood flow, and aortic blood flow. At the bedside, respiratory changes in aortic blood flow are reflected by â€Å"swings† in blood pressure whose magnitude is highly dependent on volume status.† ( p 419). Another element however that is very important is the administration of the fluid challenge. Fluid challenges are common in a range of nursing situations (Vincent and Weil, 2006). According to Michard (2005), â€Å"the expected hemodynamic response to a fluid challenge is an increase in cardiac preload and, according to the Frank-Starling mechanism, an increase in stroke volume and cardiac output† (p 423). This should be evident in a blood pressure increase and a reduced heart rate. However, there is the danger of fluid overload, and therefore administering a fluid challenge must be carried out carefully. Vincent and Weil (2006) propose that fluid challenges should follow a protocol should include four variables: the type of fluid administered; the rate of fluid administration; the critical end points; and the safety limits. The choice of fluid was gelofusine, which is a colloidal fluid useful for volume replacement because of its unique properties (Vincent and Weil, 2006), Vincent and Weil (2006) state that using a structured approach to fluid challenges would be best, in order to correct fluid deficits and minimize the risks associated with fluid overload. It is important to monitor patient response closely (Vincent and Weil, 2006). When gelofusine was given her CVP increased and blood pressure and urine output improved. Her potassium, magnesium sulphate and Phosphate were topped up during my shift, and electrolyte levels were stable. Her heart rate went down to 110bpm since amiodarone infusion was restarted. She was on a few other medications, which potentially affect the potassium levels such as hydrocortisone, insulin actrapid infusion, salbutamol nebuliser and theophyline via NGT, which in addition can also cause arrrhythmias. REFLEXIBILITY. I learned a lot about basic nursing care activities, and in particular, the importance of time management. Time management is an important element of managing such a complex case, because it requires specific measurements, observations and recordings at specific times, whilst also managing emergent issues, maintaining records, and liaison with other members of the multidisciplinary team. Good patient assessment also emerged as a key learning point, and promoting a safe working environment, particularly in relation to all the aspects of care that posed challenges, such as managing drains, lines, infusion machines, monitoring morphine as a controlled substance, and also keeping contemporaneous records. These were all very challenging and made me feel under pressure to somehow keep juggling all the different tasks and demands, and still have time to reflect and think about the overall picture. Record keeping helped with this, but it seemed that critical care of such a patient requires t he development of specific capabilities, which must mean that such multi-tasking and multi-awareness gets easier over time. The level of vigilance required in order to anticipate and be ready for any emergent changes in Jane’s condition was significant, and required a great deal of concentration and focus. I also learned that it was important to work with confidence and collaborate with the multidisciplinary team. However, maintaining communication with the team was very difficult given all the demands on my time. One of the issues here was also whether or not Jane still needed mechanical ventilation, and during this shift, there was no discussion of when or whether she would be weaned off the ventilator. As she was paralysed, there was no indication of whether or not she would be trying to breathe with the ventilator, and how good her respiratory function might be. 12 days on the ventilator is a significant amount of time, and some literature suggests that earlier weaning from ventilator support may be possible in a lot of cases (Dasta et al, 2005). However, there was no indication of this, but similarly, there was no indication that this was a palliative care case (Mularski et al, 2006). If I had had more knowledge and understanding of this kind of nursing, and in particular, of the details and implications of Jane’s condition, I might have considered whether or not, as her advocate, I should be asking about the continued need for ventilation, particularly in the light of other possible approaches, such as non-invasive ventilation (Don et al, 2007). My discussions with other, more experienced members of staff, however, showed that the kinds of knowledge that most informed their care in this situation were experiential knowledge developed over a significant period of time. Therefore, it seemed to me that the empirical knowledge discusses above needed to be tempered with experience, which includes the experiences that come from working with more experienced and knowledgeable colleagues. Another issue which arose was about learning how much of my nursing practice is based upon good communication skills and developing a relationship with the patient, neither of which were useful or appropriate in this case. Although communication with ventilated patients is a focus of critical care nursing (Bergbom-Engberg, and Haljam, 1993), in this case I found it strange to work without including the patient in my care, whilst I also realised that the patient needed my advocacy more than any other, because they could not be involved or speak for themselves. However, the role of the critical care nurse in managing mechanical ventilation is something which became very apparent during this experience. The literature shows that critical care nurses have high levels of autonomy and responsibility in relation to mechanical ventilation, and that â€Å"critical care nurses were responsible for the majority of the decision episodes that resulted in a change to ventilator settings, ranging in complexity from the simple titration of FIO2 to a decision to commence weaning† (Rose et al, 2007 p 440). CONCLUSION This reflection has looked at the care of a client in the critical care nursing sector, who, after an infective exacerbation of COPD had to have a tracheostomy and be ventilated. I identified potential markers of dehydratrion, and presented these conclusions to the doctor in charge, who prescribed regulatory medication and a fluid challenge with Gelofusine. I administered the fluid challenge, infusing at the prescribed rate of 500 mls over 2 hours, and noted an improvement in central venous pressure, blood pressure and mean arterial pressure. An improvement in hourly urine output was also noted. It was also important to monitor electrolyte balance, and arterial blood gases, all of which improved with therapeutic intervention. The care of the client highlighted a number of issues for me as a nurse. The first is the value of this kind of reflection in highlighting my knowledge and my learning processes. Gustafson and Fagerberg (2004) highlight how important structured reflection is to professional development, and in this case, using a structured process of reflection has highlighted my knowledge base, learning needs, learning process, and the application of nursing knowledge which is more than empirical knowledge, to a specific clinical scenario. Jones (1995) suggests that reflection is a part of the development of true nursing expertise. This has proved to be correct in relation to the learning that has occurred during this reflection. It has shown that understanding the effects of mechanical ventilation required more than simply monitoring observations and test values, but understanding that ventilation can affect cardiovascular function, and that this can be affected by haemodynamic status. Although pre vious knowledge and experience indicated that the patient’s condition was likely due to hypovolaemia (potentially secondary to dehydration), there were a number of other mechanisms that might have affected this. It also became apparent that the role of the nurse in this situation is more than to simply monitor vital signs and infusions, ventilator functions, urine output and general wellbeing, attending to the activities of daily living. When a patient is paralysed and ventilated, unconscious due to sedation, the role of the nurse is to act in their stead, in their best interests, to be their advocate and to ensure plans of care are implemented which not only meet patient needs but anticipate them. Rolfe (2005) describes reflective practice as a deconstructive process, which allows nurses to question practice and ways of working. This process has identified a range of nursing issues related to this case, and shown that nothing is a simple matter of managing one condition in critical care nursing, it is part of an overall focus on patient-centred care. References Bergbom-Engberg, I. and Haljam, H. (1993) The communication process with ventilator patients in the ICU as perceived by the nursing staff. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 9 (1) 40-59. Bridges, E.J. (2008) Arterial Pressure-Based Stroke Volume and Functional Hemodynamic Monitoring. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing. 23(2):105-112. This article is not included in your organizations subscription. However, you may be able to access this article under your organizations agreement with Elsevier. Dasta, J.F., McLaughlin, T.P., Mody, S.H. and Piech, C.T. (2005) Daily cost of an intensive care unit day: The contribution of mechanical ventilation. Critical Care Medicine. 33(6):1266-1271. Don, D.S., Wong, E., Mayers, I. et al (2007) Effects of nocturnal non-invasive mechanical ventilation on heart rate variability of patients with advanced COPD. Chest 131 156-163. Gustafsson, C. and Fagerberg, I. (2004) Reflection: the way to professional development? Journal of Clinical Nursing 13 271-280. Hadian, M. and Pinksy, M.R. (2007) Functional hemodynamic monitoring. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 13(3):318-323. Jones, P.R. (1995) Hindsight bias in reflective practice: an empirical investigation. Journal of Advanced Nursing 21 (4) 783–788. Kelley, D. (205) Hypovolemic Shock: An Overview. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly. 28(1):2-19. Kollef, M.H. (2004) Prevention of hospital-associated pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Critical Care Medicine. 32(6):1396-1405. Michard, F. (2005) Changes in arterial pressure during mechanical ventilation. Anesthesiology 103 419-428. Mularski, R.A., Curtis, J.R., Billings, J.A. et al (2006) Proposed quality measures for palliative care in the critically ill: A consensus from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Critical Care Workgroup. Critical Care Medicine. Improving the Quality of End-of-Life Care in the ICU. 34(11) Suppl:S404-S411. Pinsky, M.R. (2005) Cardiovascular Issues in Respiratory Care. Chest 2005;128 592-597. Pinsky, M.R. (2003) Hemodynamic monitoring in the intensive care unit Clinics in Chest Medicine 24 (4) Pages 549-560 Polanco, P.M. and Pinsky, M.R. (2006) Practical Issues of Hemodynamic Monitoring at the Bedside Surgical Clinics of North America 86 (6) 1431-1456 This article is not included in your organizations subscription. However, you may be able to access this article under your organizations agreement with Elsevier. Putensen, C., Wrigge, H. and Herin, R. (2006) The effects of mechanical ventilation on the gut and abdomen. Current Opinion in Critical Care. 12(2):160-165. Rolfe, G. (2005) The deconstructing angel: nursing, reflection and evidence-based practice Nursing Inquiry 12 (2), 78–86. Rose, L, Nelson, S., Johnston, L. and Presneill, J.J. (2007) Decisions made by critical care nurses during mechanical ventilation andweaning in an australian intensive care unit. American Journal Of Critical Care, 16 (5) 43-54. Vincent, J-L. and Weil, M.H. (2006) Fluid challenge revisited. Critical Care Medicine. 34(5):1333-1337.

College Athletes Should Be Paid Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Athl

  College athletics is a billion dollar industry and has been for a long time. Due to the increasing ratings of college athletics, this figure will continue to rise. It’s simple: bigger, faster, stronger athletes will generate more money. College Universities generate so much revenue during the year that it is only fair to the players that they get a cut. College athletes should get paid based on the university’s revenue, apparel sales, and lack of spending money. I believe that college sports should be considered a profession. Athletes deserve to be paid for their work. College athletics are a critical part of America’s culture and economy. At the present time, student-athletes are considered amateurs. College is a stepping-stone to the professional leagues. The NCAA is exploiting the student- athlete. Big-time schools are running a national entertainment business that controls the compensation rate of the players like a monopoly (Byers 1).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to the NCAA regulations an athlete will lose his/her eligibility if they are paid to play; sign a contract with an agent; receive a salary, incentive payment, award, gratuity educational expenses or allowances; or play on a professional team. The word amateur in sports has stood for positive values compared to professional, which has had just the opposite. The professional sport has meant bad and degrading; while the amateur sport has meant good and elevating. William Geoghegan, Flyer News sports editor writes, â€Å"Would paying athletes tarnish the ideal of amateurism? Maybe, but being fair is far more important than upholding an ideal† (Geoghehan 1).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some people say that college athletes get paid by having a scholarship, but if you look at it a different way, scholarships might change your mind. Coaches try to get players who they think have the talent to make them win and to persuade them to come to their school by offering them scholarships. The whole idea behind a scholarship is to lure the athlete into coming to your school. Scholarships are nothing more than a recruitment tactic. They will give you a scholarship as long as you produce for them. It’s all about what you can do for them. Indeed these scholarships pay for tuition, room and board, and books, but these athletes don’t have money for other necessities. The NCAA doesn’t want friends or boosters to offer athletes jobs because they ... ...hletes recruited to attend college come from lower, working-class families. The opportunity to enter the draft early to help their families financially is one that will hardly be passed by.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On the issue of college athletes getting paid, I believe they should. When I mean getting paid I only mean a stipend or weekly check, not thousands or millions. All the hard work and dedication they put into their sport and academics are worthy enough. I have had a chance to play collegiate sports and it takes a lot out of you mentally and physically. The student athletes deserve at least enough money to have a normal student life. $300-$400 a month should give athletes enough money to get the required necessities. All this does is replace the notion of the athlete getting a job for a source of income. This will also help reduce the rate at which athletes accept money, cars, and gifts from boosters. When athletes get caught accepting something from a booster it looks bad on the athlete and the college. So, in my opinion yes college athletes should get paid, there is too much money that the universities have earned floating around going unanswered for the athletes not to get their cut.

Impact of Self Concept and Self Esteem on Group Communication :: Communication

My paper is about the affects self concept and self esteem have on group communication, through group communication we grow as people because we see how others define us as individuals. Through group communication we can solve a problem better then by ourselves. Self concept is the cognitive thinking aspect of self also related to one’s self-image, it’s the way we see our selves in the mirror. Self concept is the way we told to see ourselves we are grown into our self concept by what we learn when we our young from our parents or our peers. Self concept is changed through out life from how people look at you and tell you what you are to them, if they say a person is nothing then that person will believe it for as long as it takes to get over it. Self esteem is the affective or emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value ourselves, also known as one’s worth. Educators, parents, business and government leaders agree that we need to develop individuals with healthy or high self-esteem characterized by tolerance and respect for others, individuals who accept responsibility for their actions, have integrity, take pride in their accomplishments, who are self-motivated, willing to take risks, capable of handling criticism, loving and lovable, seek the challenge and stimulation of worthwhile and demanding goals, and take command and control of their lives. In other words, we need to help foster the development of people who have healthy or authentic self-esteem because they trust their own being to be life affirming, constructive, responsible and trustworthy. Some have referred to self-esteem as merely â€Å"feeling good† or having positive feelings about oneself. Others have gone so far as to equate self-esteem with egotism, arrogance, conceit, narcissism, a sense of superiority, a trait leading to violence. Such characteristics cannot be attributed to authentic, healthy self-esteem, because they are actually defensive reactions to the lack of authentic self-esteem, which is sometimes referred to as â€Å"pseudo self-esteem.

Autonomy and Society During the Industrial Revolution :: Essays Papers

The Industrial Revolution gave mankind more control over natural forces and made the production of more goods possible. One of the biggest changes from the Industrial Revolution was the movement of the population from a rural setting to the urban areas. Many new cities were created, and most of the already existing urban centers expanded in size. The population of Great Britain, France, and Germany increased by a combined 14 million people between 1831 and 1851.1 Living conditions for all classes were improved, and the people began to live in less poverty than ever before. More people of the time came to have extra money, creating an economy that grew by having a wider domestic base instead of concentrating more on trade. The industrialization of Europe created progress for all, improving the quality of life, and availability of products, as well as help close the gap between proletariat and bourgeoisie. The population was divided into two classes, the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Both groups had differing ideas of culture, society, laws, and general lifestyles. The bourgeoisie, or middle class, was the controlling group, consisting of merchants, tradesmen, and professionals. The middle class was the wealthier class, in charge of factories and involved in governmental positions. In middle class families there was a distinct separation between men and women. The men went out and earned money for the family, while the women stayed at home and raised children. Bourgeois children were treasured by their families, and educated in both schools and at home. "Daily experience shows that it is energetic individualism which produces the most powerful effects upon the life and action of others, and really constitutes the best practical education."2 An education gave the bourgeoisie a sense of superiority over the working class as well as a sense of responsibility for them. The bourgeoisie had a firm belief that the market was the ultimate expression of individual liberty. The middle class society controlled the fate of the working class and oftentimes exploited them to further their own ends, all in the name of improving society. Most middle class people were concerned mainly with gaining wealth, and ensuring that the working class did not rise up against them. The bourgeoisie felt that the lower class was lazy and would be unproductive if they were not properly disciplined. Therefore, working conditions in factories were very difficult on the life of the working class man.

Bowen Family Systems Therapy Essay

Abstract This paper was designed to fully describe Bowen’s Theory of Family Systems Therapy. The eight concepts that illustrate this theory will be thoroughly discussed and explained. References of professionals who have worked with and studied Bowen theory will be implemented and relied on in order to adequately understand and depict this theory. And finally, the second portion of this essay will include a case study. The case study will present a family profile, a treatment plan and goals, interventions and a projected outcome for the family’s recovery. Through this case study the reader will be able to identify Bowen techniques and get a more kinesthetic look on how Bowen’s Family System Therapy is applied. Introduction Bowen’s Family System Theory is based on the family as an emotional unit. The theory is based on the idea that the family is so emotionally integrated that the effect each member has on the other members can be overwhelming. Bowen’s Theory focuses on that emotional connectedness and assumes that the family can either promote cohesiveness and cooperation or tension and anxiety. Therefore, according to this theory, a change in one person’s attitude or actions will be followed by a reciprocal change in the functioning of the other members. When anxiety levels rise within the family unit the stress levels will also heighten. Therefore, when this happens one or members will end up feeling overwhelmed, isolated or out of control and then the family unit will be shaken as a whole. During this time of distress, the members who feel most out of control or  stressed will work extra hard to accommodate the other members. This is part of the reciprocal interaction. This member who absorbs most of the tension is most likely the member who will end up most susceptible to problems such as illness, alcoholism and affairs. Eight Concepts In order to implement this theory into a therapy session Bowen created eight interlocking concepts to assist the therapist in working with families. The concepts include triangles, differentiation of self, nuclear family emotional system, family projection process, multigenerational transmission process, sibling position, emotional cutoff and societal emotional process. However, it is important for any therapist to keep in mind that, according to Mike Nichols (1988), the core goal underlying the Bowenian model is differentiation of self, more specifically, the â€Å"ability to remain oneself in the face of group influences, especially the intense influence of family life†(p.2). Triangles The eight interlocking concepts are key to understanding Bowenian Family Therapy. To begin, triangles are a three person relationship system. Triangles are considered the building blocks of the larger emotional system. The reason being that the triangle is the smallest stable relationship system. Three people can take on much more tension than two people. Additionally, a triangle can contain a large amount of stress without bringing in a fourth person because the tension can shift around to all three relationships. However, just because a triangle can bear more tension does not make it healthier. Someone is almost always left out and nothing gets resolved in a triangle formation. Triangles and their undesirable effects on the family unit contribute greatly to the development of clinical problems. Within triangles, members are pushed from outsider to insider positions of conflict. Within this inside/ outside drama members will begin maneuvering and manipulating their positions within the group, thus causing fights and with that heavy strain on the relationships. Getting pushed from inside to outside positions can trigger depression and even a physical illness. For example, two parents focusing on what is wrong with a child can trigger serious rebellion within that child. While triangles may seem  comfortable and stable, they end up being a huge problem within the family unit. Differentiation of Self In opposition of triangles is Bowen’s idea of differentiation of self. According to Fritzland (1991, p. 1), the degree to which a differentiation of self occurs in an individual reflects the extent to which that person is able to distinguish between the intellectual process and the feeling process he or she is experiencing. Thus differentiation of self is related to the degree to which one is able to choose between having his or her actions, relationships and life guided by feelings or thoughts. Individuals with the most fusion between their emotions and thoughts and relationships are the lowest functioning people. These people get to a point where they cannot even tell what feelings and thoughts are their own and which are those of other people. Undifferentiated Family Ego Mass Bowen introduced the concept of the undifferentiated family ego mass. Undifferentiated family ego mass is the idea that there is a syndicated emotional oneness that exists in all levels of intensity. Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1991, p. 171) give a great example of this in the relationship between mother and child and child and father. They write, â€Å"The symbiotic relationship of interdependency between mother and child may represent the most intense version of this concept; a father’s detachment may be the least intense. The degree to which any one member is involved in the family from moment to moment depends on that person’s basic level of involvement in the family ego mass.† When the emotional closeness is too intense and possibly overbearing this may lead to an uncomfortable closeness within the family, closeness that will lead to mutual rejection between members. It may lead to fights that include intense yelling, slamming of doors and phone hang ups. Bowen insists that maturity and self-actualization demand that an individual become free of unresolved emotional attachments to his or her family of origin. Fritzlan (1991, p.4) notes that Bowen’s theory assumes that every human has an instinctive force inside them that propels the developing child to grow up to be an emotionally separate person, able to think, feel, and act as an individual. At the same time, Bowen proposes that a similar life force, also instinctively ingrained, thrusts the child and family to remain  emotionally connected. As a result of these counterbalancing forces, argues Bowen, no one ever achieves complete emotional separation from the family of origin. However, there are considerable differences in the amount of separation each of us accomplishes, as well as differences in the degree to which children from the same set of parents, emotionally separate from the family. Nuclear Family Emotional System The third concept builds on the idea of differentiation of self and is called nuclear family emotional system. The concept of the nuclear family emotional system describes four basic relationship patterns that govern where problems may develop in a family. Marital conflict, dysfunction in one spouse, impairment of one or more children and emotional distance are the patterns which will govern where problems will probably develop within the family. The more anxiety one person or one relationship sucks in, the less other people must absorb. This means that some family members maintain their functioning at the expense of others, which ends up causing a strenuous amount of tension on the people who must accommodate. People do not want to hurt each other, but when anxiety chronically dictates behavior, someone usually suffers because of it. The next concept that Bowen introduces gives the concept of the nuclear family emotional system more reason to it’s’ rhyme. Family Projection Process The family projection process touches on the different type of relationships that parents have with each of their children. When one child is focused on more than another child, the focused on child will typically be more fused with his or her parents than the unfocused on child. Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1990) say that â€Å"differences in parental behavior make for significant differences in how each child functions† (p.221). Furthermore, the child who is most focused on is most sensitive to disturbances and initial signs of instability within the family. Simply put, when the parents select the most infantile child of the family as the object of their attention, Bowen calls this the family projection process. Multigenerational Transmission Process The next key concept that Murray Bowen developed is multigenerational  transmission process. Multigenerational transmission processing describes how the entire family joins in the family projection process that was previously discussed. Bowen wrote that multigenerational transmission process provides a base from which to make predictions in the present generation and gives an overview of what to expect in coming generations. This process entails the way family emotional processes are transferred and maintained over the generations. In this theory Bowen contends that people choose mates with equivalent levels of differentiation to their own. Thus, the highly undifferentiated person will choose a mate that is similarly undifferentiated from their family and the differentiated person will find a mate who is also differentiated from their family of origin. Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1990, p. 198) say that it is probable that these poorly differentiated people, now a marital couple, will themselves become highly fused and will produce a family with the same characteristics. Furthermore, Bowen believes that the resulting nuclear family emotional system will be unstable and will seek various ways to reduce tension and maintain stability by over indulging in such things as alcohol, drugs, and getting involved in codependent relationship. This can affect a child psychologically as well and it can then perpetuate and become a cycle within the family. Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1990, p. 199) say that psychological impairment in a child is enabling to the parents as they will simply focus attention on the child and ignore or deny their own lack of differentiation. This will only further inhibit the child’s development of self as well as support the already dysfunctional marital relationship. Sibling Position Sibling position is a concept that Bowen stressed. He believes that each child has a place in the family hierarchy and therefore was more or less likely to fit certain projections. For example, the oldest sibling is more likely to be the mature, responsible one. Whereas the youngest child will more likely be the class clown, irresponsible and immature one. While this concept is well known and maybe even intrinsic to most people, Bowen believes this to be key when understanding differentiation and working within the family emotional system. Emotional Cutoff The seventh concept that Bowen developed for his theory is called emotional cutoff. Most people have experienced this concept or have at least heard of it. Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1990) write that emotional cutoff is a flight from unresolved emotional ties, and is not true emancipation from the family (p. 225). Emotional cutoffs do several things; they reflect a problem, such as underlying fusion between generations. They solve the problem by reducing the anxiety in the cutoff relationship. And finally, they create a problem by isolating people who might benefit from closer contact. Fritzlan (1991) notes that cutoffs most often occur in families where there is a high level of anxiety and emotional dependence. Bowen has suggested that when emotional cutoffs exist between parents and grandparents, then a cutoff between parents and children of the following generation increases in likelihood. It is easy to see how cutoffs can occur and how the other key concepts if not understood or resolved can cause an emotional cutoff in a family relationship. Societal Emotional Process Finally, the eighth key concept is societal emotional process. This process is in a way like the family projection process except scaled to a societal level. Families that deal with discrimination, prejudice and persecution will pass on to their children coping methods and ways to which they survived these factors. Basically, these are social expectations about racial and class groups, the behaviors or each gender and their effects on the family. Andreas Viklund (2009) noted that the family unit and society as a whole have the task of promoting the long term interest of individual members and the society as an entirety. Evaluation and Validity of Bowen’s Theory While Bowen is considered to be one of the most effective theorists in marriage and family arena of therapy, there are both strengths and weaknesses to his ideas. His eight key concepts are great tools for therapists to use as a guide for therapy, but it is important to note the validity of his theory and to review his theory in a more critical way. The main concept that Bowen teaches is differentiation of self. This is the founding idea for all of his concepts. Differentiation of self is very important, however Bowen did not leave a sufficient tool as a means to measure clients’ differentiation of self. Richard et al (2004) note that Bowen suggested that clinicians could use a differentiation-of-self scale ranging from 0 to 100; however, he provided few guidelines to help clinicians reliably and accurately assign an appropriate score. Indeed, he claimed that the concept was not quantifiable for researchers. Consequently, Bowen’s scale has been useful only as a theoretical tool. In the last decade there have been two scales, Haber’s Level of Differentiation of Self Scale and Kowron’s Differentiation of Self Inventory, that were developed as a means to measure differentiation. Richard et al (2004) researched the validity of these two scales with Bowen’s theory by having two experts in Bowen theory rate the relevance of the items in these scales. The first scale significantly correlated with chronic anxiety and psychological distress, which is consistent with Bowen theory and, thereby, demonstrates sufficient validity. The second scale was also consistent with Bowen theory, the Differentiation of Self Inventory correlated significantly with chronic anxiety, psychological distress, and marital satisfaction. In addition, confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated psychometric support for the four subscales. Bowen theorized that people marry according to their same level of differentiation, this is called the multigenerational transmission process. Bowen simply stated, â€Å"People who marry have the same level of differentiation of self (Kerr & Bowen, 1988, p. 225). This is because each spouse has the â€Å"same need for emotional reinforcement from the relationship† (Kerr & Bowen, 1988, p. 171). This concept is probably one of Bowen’s weakest. There have been numerous studies, Richter (1998), Richards (1988) and Skowron (2000) just to name a few, that totally refute this idea of Bowen’s. While this does not necessarily knock down his entire theory it does poke some holes in it and force the common therapist to rethink their approach to working with married couples and their families. While the above concept is a fairly weak one, there is another aspect of multigenerational transmission process that proves to be stronger. There is a vast amount of research supporting a specific aspect of Bowen’s concept of multigenerational transmission process. The aspect that parents’ and children’s values and beliefs are highly correlated seems to have strong validity according to studies. Many of these studies were conducted in the field of social gerontology and date back to the early 1970s when research about the â€Å"generation gap† was conducted to examine continuity between generations (Troll & Bengtson, 1979). These studies have consistently found that parents’ and children’s values and beliefs are highly correlated, as assumed by Bowen. There is also a substantial amount of literature that gives evidence that levels of individual and relationship functioning are passed on from one generation to another. For example, Richard et al (2004) write that studies have revealed that there is a multigenerational transmission process for violence (Alexander, Moore, & Alexander, 1991), divorce (Amato, 1996), and marital quality (Feng, Giarrusso, Bengtson, & Frye, 1999). Richard at al (2004) also remarks that â€Å"research has also shown that eating disorders (Whitehouse & Harris, 1998), depressed affect (Whitbeck et al., 1992), and alcoholism (Sher, Gershuny, Peterson, & Raskin, 1997) are transmitted inter-generationally† (p. 9). Through many studies testing different aspects of Bowen’s theory there are and will continue to be weak points exposed. However, there proves to be a vast amount of validity to his theory as well. The weakest suggestion is definitely that people marry according to their own differentiation. In my own life Bowen’s idea proves to be untrue and while looking at different marriages around me I do not see any sort of pattern in this regard. If anything, I have observed people marrying opposite of their own differentiation level rather than finding a spouse who matches their level of differentiation. Even still, differentiation of self as a whole demonstrates to be the most valid and prominent idea in Bowen theory, both Biblically and psychologically. Biblical Integration and Evaluation I believe God was first to introduce the idea of differentiation of self, especially differentiation of self when entering into marriage. Genesis 2:24 says, â€Å"For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh.† According to this verse it seems that differentiation is shown by one’s ability to leave their parents before they can rightly cleave to their spouse. Since Bowen emphasizes the need for a person to be emotionally differentiated from parents in order to maintain healthy balances of individuality and togetherness in ensuing relationships, this seems to be paralleled with the command presented in Genesis. According to Bowen and Kerr (1988), only a differentiated person can be securely attached. Furthermore, this seems to be God’s stance on differentiation as well. It seems that God, being omnipotent and all knowing, designed marriages to work out best when spouses are healthily differentiated from their families of origin. In my opinion, differentiation of self is very important and seeing how the Bible supports this idea I feel even stronger about its’ significance. This is the main reason I chose to write about Bowen’s Theory to begin with. I appreciate Bowen’s eight concepts, as I believe they are great tools for therapists. The concepts help the therapist to work within this theory without feeling lost or overwhelmed by the new ideas or different facets they are implementing into the therapy session. Even more personally, I think that my own differentiation of self has been weak until the last year or so. This is another reason I chose to work with Bowen’s Theory. When I first got married I was very attached to my family and often chose them over my husband or even over myself. I know that this not only hurt my husband’s feelings, but also the quality of our marriage. When I finally understood that I was spending too much time with my parents and choosing their events over quality time with Elden (my husband), things drastically changed between us. Many problems we were having fixed themselves and he became significantly happier. Elden emphasized to me that he felt much more respected by me when I began deferring to him rather than my parents regarding issues. And in turn, I began to feel much more loved by him because he became mindful of the way he was treating me since it was  obvious I was making conscience decisions to be more attached to him and to my own independence than my family. While I still spend a good amount of time with my family, Elden is much more willing to spend time with them along with me because he knows and feels that he always comes first. Also, I take much more time for myself and the things I enjoy, which makes everyone happier. Looking back I wish that I would have truly understood differentiation of self before getting married, but I am so grateful that I did learn it early on as it will only help us for the rest of our lives together. Seeing how this very small aspect of a lack of self-differentiation played out on my own life drew me to Bowen’s Theory. I wanted to understand how great of a role this theory could play in everyday life. I see now that differentiation of self has a much larger role in familial success than I had thought. And I believe Bowen’s eight aspects only further make the point of this theory’s significance in family systems therapy. Case Study Looking at my own life would be a perfect case study for Bowen Theory. However, since Elden and I did not get any therapy for our issues it would be difficult to use. Keeping my previous story in mind, here is the profile of the case I have chosen to illustrate: The client family consists of three boys and a mother and father. Stan, the father, called in to make an appointment because his wife, Jen who is in her late 40’s, is having anxiety attacks and is overwhelmed by her three sons. She tends to yell at the boys and feels like she has not patience for them anymore. Stan says he has been out of a job for three years and Jen ‘s parents have been supporting their family for the last 6 months. The boys, Joel, Derek and Steve range in ages from pre adolescent to late teens, the eldest being Steve who is graduating from high school soon. Stan reports that they are very high energy, but well behaved and successful in their school and sports activities. Stan emphasizes that h e is most worried about â€Å"mom†, Jen, and thinks the boys are handling things just fine, as is he. After seeing the family as a whole once it is obvious that Jen is not the main problem, it is Stan. However, since Stan is out of work Jen is taking  on the stress of the family and it is more than she can bear. The three boys are very close to their parents and the youngest one, Joel, is totally fused with Jen. Joel sat on Jen’s lap during the session and acted very much like a baby when she was not able gives him her full attention. Stan seems to have come to terms with not having a job and the fact that Jen’s parents are supporting them, however he continues to call Jen â€Å"mom† and talk about how sensitive and delicate she is. There seems to be a lack of intimacy between Stan and Jen along with a lack of respect for one another. And finally, the only one of the children who does not call Jen â€Å"mommy† is Derek, the middle child. Goals, Treatment Plan and Interventions Before presenting the family’s treatment plan and prognosis it is important to understand what the goal of Bowen family systems therapy is. The goal is to increase the capacity of one or more members to adapt to and deal with the constant change and evolution of family life. Graefe (1955) describes the differentiation effort by using a metaphor from sailing: â€Å"you cannot change the velocity of the winds, but you can change the direction of the sales† (p.2). It is with this goal in mind that the treatment plan can be created. To begin, this family’s treatment plan will be to complete a genogram so that I can fully understand their families of origin. It is easy to see that in this family there is a lot of triangulation, mostly between the parents and Steve, the oldest son. At times Derek takes Steve’s place in the triangulation between Stan and Jen. However, he is mostly in an alliance with Stan and has picked up much of his father’s sexist attitudes. The genogram will allow me to see if there was any domestic violence or abuse in the family’s history and will also allow me to get a better idea of the attitudes men had towards women in Stan’s family of origin. Furthermore, the genogram will help indicate how differentiated Stan and Jen are from their own parents and how self-differentiation looks in their family’s past. The genogram will reveal many aspects of Jen and Stan’s family history, some more important than others, but all useful in understanding this couple. Once the genogram is completed I will be able to focus on generational issues. However, in order to help the family more immediately, decreasing the anxiety that Jen is feeling will be absolutely necessary. When anxiety  is decreased presenting symptoms will begin tomodify or decrease. Nevertheless, this will mean that Stan, Steve and Joel will need to learn to be more differentiated from Jen. Stan is interesting, because he has a very sexist attitude toward Jen, but totally relies on her and her parents for most things in life. He needs to recognize this in order to help Jen lessen her anxiety. One way in which I will help the boys become more differentiated from Jen is by, first of all, asking Stan to stop calling Jen â€Å"mom†. Since Stan sets the tone and attitude for his children, having him break this habit will be helpful. It might also create a more intimate attitude toward the couple. Furthermore, Joel will need to sit at least two chairs away from Jen for all futu re sessions. And finally, Jen will be asked to allow Joel to speak for himself so that he can find his own voice. Part of this family’s treatment plan will rely on my use of interventions. It will be very important that I am able to model to them what healthy parenting relationships may look like. I also will need to develop a functioning healthy triangle between Stan, Jen and myself. I believe that once the parent’s relationship is put into a more healthful place, the children will begin to differentiate themselves from their parents. A component of working on Jen and Stan’s relationship will include Stan having more communication with his own mother and with Jen’s parents. It will also include Jen and Stan taking some time out to research their own family history which will hopefully enlighten both of them on a few different levels. Finally, Jen’s major homework will be to take an hour out of each day where she is not available to her family in any capacity and she must journal about this process three times a week. This â€Å"homework† will expectantly allow her family to learn to differentiate themselves from her and reduce some anxiety in her immediate stage of life. Also, I believe this exercise will be very eye opening for Stan to see how much he actually relies on Jen. Stan and Jen’s family should continue therapy for a minimum of one year, as Bowen believes four years is a more reasonable prognosis schedule. If the children do not continue, Stan and Jen should follow through with couple therapy. I would imagine that couple therapy will be more beneficial in the  long run and that their sons will only need to be in family therapy initially. In fact, if I have done my job properly the children will want to discontinue therapy on their own accord. This will be a great indication of the differentiation they are achieving. However, once Joel, Derek and Steve terminate their role in therapy the reason why Stan and Jen will need to continue is so they can fully appreciate the generational transmission process and understand how their emotional projection onto their children is prohibiting growth and differentiation in their circle of five. Conclusion Bowen Family Systems Therapy is a therapy that focuses on emotional process rather than content. Murray Bowen’s eight concepts outline this idea of emotional process very clearly and make following a system and intervention plan easier for a therapist. While some of Bowen’s Theory and concepts are based on his own secular viewpoint, God shines through this theory in His own way. Biblically, many facets of Bowen’s theory are sound which only make a better case for the knowledge that the Bible has to offer the world. Since God is the Ultimate Counselor, it makes sense that differentiation would be mentioned in His Word first. In conclusion, looking at the case study, along with the treatment plan, interventions and prognosis one can get a much better idea of how Bowen Theory can be implemented into family therapy. The family depicted in the case study thought that the problem was the mother, Jen. But it turned out that she was not the only problem. In the treatment plan it was important to focus on the family’s emotional process rather than â€Å"fixing† Jen. All of the members of the family needed to learn to think on their own two feet and live parts of their lives without Jen’s approval. Once this happens, Jen should feel substantially less anxious and angry. Thus, this case was classic for employing Bowenian Therapy. However, Bowen Family Systems Therapy can be applied to any case and will always achieve satisfactory results as Bowen is a master at family therapy. References Fritzlan, L. (1991). How to Get Your Own Life and Not Get Overwhelmed by Your Family. Pacific Grove. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Goldenberg, I., Goldenberg, H.(1990). Family Therapy: An Overview. Pacific Grove, CA. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company Kerr, M., Bowen, M. (1988). Family Evaluation: An Approach Based on Bowen Theory. New York, NY. W.W. Norton & Company. Miller, Richard B., et al. (2004). Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. Family Systems Therapy: Is Bowen Theory Valid? A Review of Basic Research. Blackwell Publishing. http://www.interventions.net/BowenTheoryUpdated.pdf